Overview

Celestium is a high-performance, Ethereum-compatible Layer 1 blockchain designed to push the boundaries of scalability while preserving decentralization and security. It leverages a unique Proof of Authority + AI (PoAi) consensus mechanism and introduces several architectural advancements to achieve throughput of 10,000 transactions per second (TPS), with single-slot finality in 1 second.

Celestium aims to address the performance bottlenecks that limit existing blockchains, such as single-threaded execution and synchronous consensus-execution coupling, without compromising on the core principles of decentralization, trustlessness, and censorship resistance.

Core Design Principles

Celestium is built on a set of core principles that guide its design and development:

• Decentralization First: While optimizing for scalability and performance, decentralization remains a top priority. The protocol is designed to ensure that no single entity can compromise the network's neutrality and security.

• Ethereum Compatibility: Celestium is fully compatible with Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM) bytecode and the Ethereum RPC API, enabling developers to migrate their existing Ethereum-based applications seamlessly.

• Performance and Efficiency: With innovations like parallel execution, asynchronous execution, and a custom state database called CelesDb, Celestium achieves high throughput while optimizing resource efficiency.

Technical Innovations

Celestium introduces key innovations to enhance performance and usability:

• Proof of Authority + AI (PoAi): A consensus mechanism that combines the stability and efficiency of Proof of Authority with AI-driven validator selection and optimization. This approach ensures fast, secure block finality while adapting to network conditions in real-time.

• CelesBFT: A pipelined, two-phase Byzantine Fault Tolerant consensus algorithm inspired by HotStuff and DiemBFT, optimized for low latency and high throughput.

• Asynchronous Execution: Decoupling consensus from execution allows Celestium to process consensus and transaction execution independently. This eliminates execution bottlenecks and allows transactions to utilize the full block time for processing.

• Parallel Execution: Transactions are executed in parallel where possible, leveraging multi-core systems to maximize throughput without altering the linearity of block ordering.

• CelesDb: A custom-built state storage solution optimized for parallel access and asynchronous I/O, designed to handle high transaction volumes efficiently.

Developer Experience

Developers can build on Celestium using familiar tools from the Ethereum ecosystem, including:

• Hardhat, Foundry, and Apeworx for smart contract development and testing.

• MetaMask and other popular wallets for interacting with the network.

• Etherscan-style block explorers for transaction tracking and analytics.

Performance and Finality

Celestium achieves single-slot finality in 1 second, meaning that transactions are considered final and irreversible after a single block. Execution results are typically available within 1 second for full nodes. Light clients can verify state changes with a delayed Merkle root mechanism (D = 10 blocks), ensuring trust-minimized access to on-chain data.

Built for the Future

The Celestium client is developed from scratch using C++ and Rust, focusing on performance, robustness, and modularity. The network is engineered to support future upgrades and adapt to evolving demands within the blockchain industry.

Summary

Celestium provides a next-generation blockchain platform that balances decentralization, performance, and compatibility. It empowers developers and users with:

• High throughput (10,000 TPS).

• Low latency (1-second finality).

• Ethereum compatibility.

• Advanced execution model.

• Optimized state storage.

Whether building decentralized applications, deploying smart contracts, or processing high-frequency transactions, Celestium delivers the infrastructure to power the next wave of blockchain innovation.